Glyconutrients - The 8 Essential Sugars

Below you'll find some detailed information about each of the eight essential sugars that are called glyconutrients. As you'll see these sugars are vitally important nutrients for our health and well being. Also, please keep in mind that the information listed here is just what's currently known about these sugars. They may actually play many more vital roles in our bodily systems (as some suspect) that we don't even know about yet!

Check out the information below, and if you have any questions about these glyconutrients or the unique patented mixture of them that we offer, please don't hesitate to contact me.

Mannose
Mannose appears to be the foundation of all the essential sugars. It is involved in so many fundamental cell actions that any deficiency of this one saccharide can lead to a host of physical problems.  Like Xylose and Xylitol, Mannose also has its sugar alcohol in the form known as Mannitol.

Functions

• Mannose is gaining a reputation as a remedy for urinary tract infections (UTIs). Often, these infections come as a result of E.coli contamination, affecting the bladder as well as other urinary structures. The bladder lining is comprised of polysaccharide molecules. Finger-like projections on the cell surface of E.coli bacteria adhere to these molecules, initiating an infection. When Mannose molecules are present, E.coli prefers to attach to them to form a complex which is then expelled with the next voiding. Mannose works about 90% of the time without causing any additional harm to the body. This is not the case when antibiotics are used to correct the problem. Studies have also shown that about 80% of painful bladder syndromes become symptom-free when a Mannose supplement is added to the diet.

• Mannose prompts anti-inflammatory activity and tissue regeneration. It appears to have an active role in the activation of macrophages, whose function it is to clean up debris which can cause inflammation. In fact, macrophages have at least four different receptors that bind Mannose implying that the sugar is vital for the proper function of these garbage collectors. Further evidence for its anti-inflammatory abilities is based on studies involved in wound healing. Mannose stimulates fibroblasts to make more collagen and proteoglycans, which means that healing is sped up, pain is lessened, and skin integrity returns to normal faster. Mannose also works to correct over-active neutrophils (T cells) that cause misguided inflammation. Researchers in Australia have confirmed this action. Evidentally, Mannose displaces certain enzymes required for T cells to flow into various areas such as the joints, liver tissue, kidneys, and even central nervous system areas, thereby acting as a natural anti-inflammatory agent.

• Mannose, Galactose, Fucose, and N-acetylneuraminic acid are all involved in reversing Failure to thrive (FFT) syndromes. Failure to thrive and cachexia (general ill health and malnutrition) are also seen in adults with AIDS and cancer. It appears that a direct cause of FTT symptoms in children is the failure of glycoproteins to transport sugar, something that can actually start in the placenta. This malfunction of glucose transporters (glycoproteins) can also occur in the blood-brain barrier and muscle cells of the developing infant, inevitably producing a host of undesirable symptoms. Research has shown that supplementation with glyconutrients resulted in significantly improved conditions. Apparently, it takes the combination of essential sugars to correct the problem and not just a supplementation of one sugar or of one nutrient.

• Mannose is found in all cell membranes, thereby affecting every organ and system of the body. It is also another essential sugar that can be found in the photoreceptor layer of the retina, thus playing an important role in vision. It also has been shown that supplementation of Mannose can be used in conjunction with other therapies for the management of diabetic cataracts. Based on studies to date, Mannose has the ability to preserve membrane metabolites which have a protective effect in the lens.

• Since Mannose is found in distribution sites of the brain and nerve structures, it is assumed that it plays an important role in nerve physiology.

• Mannose is capable of activating insulin-like growth factor receptors, implying it can be beneficial for diabetics.

• Mannose, like another essential sugar (Glucosamine), is also crucial for joint protection, especially in cases of rheumatoid arthritis. When lab animals received mannans (polymers of Mannose), inflammation flare-ups were prevented. It is well known that genetic mutations in, or the lack of, mannose-binding proteins can predispose a person to the disease; but, by adding glyconutrients to the diet, such miscommunication between immune cells is corrected.

• Mannose has also proven to reduce tumor growth and increase survival rates of cancerous animals. It appears that the sugar stimulates macrophages which secret interferons. These, in turn, activate natural killer cells involved in the elimination of cancer cells. Mannose has also been used to depress the rate of growth of other tumor cells in cultures. When scientists added Mannose and Glucosamine into the drinking water of mice with tumor cells, their survival rate increased while the tumors decreased. Some studies concluded that Mannose and Fucose appeared to be the most effective sugars when it came to slowing the growth of cancer cells.

• Mannose acts as an antibacterial agent. Bacteria have lectins on their surfaces that bind to host cells, resulting in infection. However, Mannose competes with the bacterial lectins, occupying sites that would normally bind to host cell Mannose receptors, thus preventing attachment and thwarting possible infection. Mannose has proven to be particularly effective against Salmonella and E.coli.

• Mannose also has antiviral, antiparasitic, and antifungal properties.


Galactose
Galactose is an essential sugar found in abundance in the diet, especially in dairy products, where it co-exists with lactose, and in the pectins of some fruits. However, there are many people who are lactose-intolerant and, therefore, may also be lacking in Galactose.

As with all the essential sugars, Galactose is no different in that it is necessary for cell communication. If just one of the sugars is missing in the diet, communication breaks down, resulting in disease. Depending on which sugar is missing will determine which disease forms. We are learning more all the time that these essential sugars are vital for far more than just a source of energy.

Bowel disorders can affect absorption of Galactose, as well as any of the other sugars. Usually, it is because of abnormal brush-border cells of the intestinal epithelium which then results in diarrhea. Often, a combination of “friendly flora” and enzyme supplementation, as well as the eight essential sugars, will, in time, correct any digestive abnormalities.

Functions
• In animal studies, Galactose inhibits tumor growth and its spread (metastasis), especially to the liver. In addition, Galactose levels were found to be decreased in the intestinal mucins of colon cancer patients, suggesting that the addition of Galactose to the diet could help prevent or reverse the disease.

• Galactose does not stimulate insulin secretion in humans. Therefore, serum Galactose levels are not affected in diabetics, which is good news.

• Although Galactose can easily be converted into Glucose when needed for energy and can be formed from Glucose, dietary sources of Galactose are still important to maintain an epimerase enzyme-mediated equilibrium. For instance, when Galactose was supplemented in the diet of patients with metabolic diseases being treated with low protein and low lactose diets, these patients showed a significant increase in Galactose concentrations in both the red and the white blood cells.

• Galactose appears to help correct many disorders, including enhancing wound healing, decreasing inflammation, and stimulating calcium absorption. It also appears to help lower the risk of developing cataracts.

• Galactose levels are usually lower in people with adult and juvenile arthritis and in those with Lupus, suggesting that this sugar is vital to preventing or correcting these conditions.

• Galactose is widely distributed throughout the body, including the brain. Studies also indicate that the saccaride triggers long-term memory formation.

• Galactose is another essential sugar concentrated in the testes, implying that these saccharides are vital in reproduction since it appears to help in the formation of sperm.

• Found in both the proximal and distal tubules of the kidney, Galactose is obviously important for proper kidney function.

• Galatose is also present in intestinal mucins which inhibit cholesterol absorption.

• Since Galactose is found in immunoglobulins and macrophages, it appears to play a primary role in the immune system, especially that of rheumatoid arthritis. In such patients, blood levels of the sugar were markedly reduced and proved that the less Galactose there was available, the more severe was the disease. During remission, the reduction in the amount of Galactose was reversed. To make matters worse, a lack of Galactose seemed to set off a chain reaction involving other essential sugars. A Galactose deficiency on the IgG of RA patients, also reduced the terminals for Glucosamine which, in turn, bind to Mannose proteins. This resulted in the activation of blood complement and the start of the inflammatory process.

• Galactose levels are also altered in other diseases, especially in the severely ill. Levels of this saccharide are markedly reduced in upper airway epithelial cells. This is important because such patients are more susceptible to opportunistic pathogens, especially those that target respiratory organs producing such diseases as pneumonia or bronchitis.

• Dietary Galactose is also important in maintaining normal bacterial flora in the intestines. Prolonged use of Galactose has proven to increase the number of Bifidobacteria while providing the proper environment for other beneficial bacteria in the human gut. Providing this type of environment not only strengthens digestive abilities, but also the immune system as well.

• Scientists are now turning their attention to a link seen between Galactose deficiency and MS (multiple sclerosis). This disorder has already been linked to an inability to absorb another essential sugar, Xylose, but there also appears to be abnormal Galactose molecules present as well. In addition, the myelin sheath that covers nerves is attacked by overactive immune cells. The myelin sheath contains Galactose, as well as other
essential sugars. Therefore, supplementation of all eight essential sugars could help rebuild the system to where absorption is once again possible and could reverse the condition.

Fucose
Fucose is a member of the group of eight essential sugars the body requires for optimal function of cell-to-cell communication. The L form of Fucose is the only common form of the sugar, while the D form is a synthetic galactose analogue. When taken orally, Fucose is readily absorbed from the small intestine and incorporated either directly or after metabolism into glycoproteins. Unabsorbed Fucose is metabolized by friendly intestinal bacteria. In humans, Fucose is excreted mainly in the urine at a rate of approximately 17 micrograms per minute. Nursing mothers also eliminate Fucose from the breast milk. During the latter stages of pregnancy, excretion of Fucose in the urine is markedly increased, which is consistent with fetal development and the transfer of immunity to the newborn.

Functions
• It is now known that Fucose glycoconjugates (glycoproteins and glycolipids) are an essential part of eliminating or reversing such disease processes as cancer, inflammation, and immunity.

• Fucose concentrations are found in such areas as:
a) at the junctions between nerves, implying that a deficiency could affect synaptic transmissions; b) in the proximal tubules of the human kidney, indicating the vital need for this saccharide for proper kidney function; c) in the testes, suggesting that it plays an important role in reproduction; d) in the outer layer of skin, where it may be involved in maintaining skin hydration.

• Fucose is profoundly important for efficient neuron transmission in the brain. According to studies, Fucose is known to influence brain development and may also help improve the brain’s ability to create long-term memories. Several studies have shown that, by
inhibiting the Fucose-containing protein, amnesia developed. Research is ongoing but showing good promise.

• Fucose is a powerful immune modulator. It is distributed in macrophages, which are critically important to immune function. There have been numerous well-documented benefits for its necessity in immune function ,especially that of an overactive immune system, the cause of autoimmune disorders. Fucose is showing promise in its ability to normalize immune function.

• Fucose is particularly active in inflammatory diseases and has the ability to suppress such allergic skin reactions as contact dermatitis.

• Fucose and another essential sugar, Mannose, have the ability to kill bacteria and to help fortify resistance to infection. This is particularly true of respiratory cells. New studies reveal that, because bacteria have lectins on their surfaces that stick to the host’s saccharide receptors, supplying the body with these essential sugars can help deflect host-binding so that an infection can either be foiled or lessened.

• Researchers who injected Fucose into lab animals found a possible treatment for breast cancer. U-fucoidan, a complex polysaccharide found in brown seaweed, was able to kill cancer cells in vitro within 72 hours. Interestingly, the destruction was self-induced (apoptosis), suggesting that the sugars were able to break down the DNA within each cancer cell through enzyme action.

• Fucose can be found in blood cell antigens, which are involved in determining blood type.

Cancer
Fucose studies are also showing that it plays a significant role in many diseases, including cancer and its spread. Research is still ongoing but showing promise in the areas of inhibiting and reversing leukemia and breast cancer, including the suppression of tumor growth. Some studies have concluded that Fucose and Mannose appeared to be the most effective of the essential sugars when it came to slowing the growth of cancer cells.

Rheumatoid Arthritis
Levels of Fucose are low in those with rheumatoid arthritis, and supplementation is showing promise as a harmless but surprisingly effective treatment. What is particularly interesting is the lower a person’s level of Fucose (as well as Galactose, another essential sugar), the more advanced the disease.

Other Diseases
Fucose metabolism appears to be altered in various diseases. Several studies have concluded that Fucose metabolism is abnormal in those with cystic fibrosis, diabetes, and during episodes of shingles, which is caused by a herpes virus. These studies go on to suggest that the sugar is active against other herpes viruses. In addition, the saccharide guards against respiratory tract infections and inhibits allergic reactions. Liver function and serum protein levels were also affected by a deficiency of Fucose. All these disorders, as well as many others, go back to immune function where fucose is showing to play a significant role.

Future Use
In other studies, Fucose proved that it can be incorporated into certain areas of the body where and when it is most needed. For instance, Fucose incorporated into the photoreceptor layer of the retina, may help with the biosynthesis of rod cell glycoproteins. In psoriasis, fucose may play a significant role in the disease process because of altered glycoprotein distribution. Normally, skin keratinocytes and non-psoriatic cells have most of their fucose on the plasma membrane, whereas psoriatic cells retain most of their fucose within the cytoplasm. The list is endless for connecting the reversal and prevention of disease and the use of Fucose and other essential sugars.

Out of the 400 or so species of intestinal microbes found in the human intestine, one has been studied as being of particular interest in its relation to Fucose - Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron. Present from birth, this bacterium survives in the lower part of the gut and feeds on Fucose. Cells lining the intestine manufacture it and post it on the surface of the cell. During weaning, Fucose production stops but begins again if B. thetaiotaomicron is present, leading researchers at Washington University School of Medicine to conclude that the bacterium is able to communicate to the intestine that it requires Fucose for its food. Understanding this communication between microbes and human cells may help provide treatment when friendly intestinal bacteria are destroyed after the use of antibiotics, for instance.

Xylose
Xylose is an essential sugar saccharide of the pentose class and vital to cellular communication. Xylose has a similar name to the sugar substitute called Xylitol, a sugar alcohol. Xylitol is generally made by using yeasts to ferment the sugar into alcohol. Manufacturers often substitute Xylitol for sucrose and corn sweeteners in chewing gum and toothpaste since it does not contribute to tooth decay. However, Xylitol is still several steps away from the original and cannot be used interchangeably with the natural sugar.

Functions
• Xylose is an antibacterial and antifungal, particularly with gram negative organisms and Candida.

• It is proving to help prevent cancer of the digestive tract.

• Absorption rate of Xylose is decreased in some patients with intestinal disorders, including those with colitis and diabetes, suggesting that when absorption problems are corrected, these conditions might also reverse themselves.

• Unlike sucrose or artificial sweeteners, Xylose promotes the growth of “friendly flora” in the intestines, thus increasing the manufacture and absorption of all nutrients. This aspect is necessary in strengthening the immune system to help fight off any type of illness.

Glucose
Glucose is the most familiar of the essential sugars and the most ubiquitous (present everywhere at the same time). Commonly called “Table sugar”, glucose is composed of a glucose molecule as well as a fructose molecule. Both saccharides are abundant in many processed foods, soft drinks, and desserts, as well as bread, rice, pasta, vegetables, cereal, honey, corn syrup, and fruit.

Functions
• Used by hospitals, sports enthusiasts, and everyone in between as a potent fast-energy source, Glucose is easily absorbed into the bloodstream.

• Glucose enhances memory, stimulates calcium absorption, and increases cellular communication. However, too much can raise insulin levels, leading to obesity and diabetes; but too little can cause hypoglycemia or worse, insulin shock (diabetic coma).

• Vital to brain function, Glucose metabolism is disturbed in depression, manic-depression, anorexia, and bulimia. In addition, Alzheimer’s patients, for instance, register much lower glucose levels than those with other forms of brain malfunction that resulted from stroke or other vascular disease. Researchers found that a dietary supplement of 75 grams of Glucose increased performance on a number of memory tests and reached across a broad range of cognitive tasks.

• Absorbed into liver cells, Glucose reduces the secretion of Glucagon, resulting in an increased uptake of Glucose by muscle and fat tissue cells. Excess blood Glucose levels is converted to fatty acids and triglycerides by the liver and fat tissues.

• Normal amounts of Glucose at a level that did not cause digestive symptoms has a beneficial effect on intestinal flora, especially that of bifidobacteria, vital for proper digestion and nutrient uptake.

• Researchers have also discovered a significant reduction in ratings of urges to smoke when smokers were given Glucose tablets to chew compared to groups who were given Sorbitol tablets. This finding suggests a glucoregulation link and cigarette cravings. In preliminary work, scientists are finding the same theory holds true for alcoholics.

Safety
The safety of Glucose consumption is well known - North Americans consume far too much of this sugar, as much as 4-times the daily recommended limit. Consuming too much Glucose suppresses the immune system, resulting in a host of chronic diseases and disorders ranging from the common cold to malabsorption syndromes, diabetes, and obesity.

How much Glucose is too much or what is the minimum requirement is an individual question. It depends on how much alcohol is consumed, antibiotics or antimicrobial foods taken, metabolic energy requirements, and so on. But it is safe to say, that very few people are even close to being deficient.

Acetylated Glyconutrients
This next group of Glyconutrients can be referred to as the “Sweet ‘n sour” sugar. The reason they can be called that is because the sugar (or sweet) portion is attached to acetic acid to form an ‘acetylated sugar ‘

N-acetylneuraminic Acid (Sialic Acid)
N-acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid) is found in a wide variety of substances and tissues in animals and humans, occurring most abundantly in glycoproteins and glycolipids.
An acidic aminosugar was first isolated and named sialic acid by one scientist. Another isolated a similar crystallized form and called it neuraminic acid. When both were found to be the same molecule, the correct structure was proposed by a third scientist. All three finally agreed to use sialic acid as the family name covering all of the more than thirty derivatives of neuraminic acid, with N-acetylneuraminic acid and N-glycolylneuraminic acid forming the core structures.

Sialic acid is widely distributed throughout human tissues and found in several fluids, including serum, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, urine, amniotic fluid, and mother’s milk. In experimental mammals, it is found in high levels in the brain, adrenal glands, and the heart. In humans, concentrations are found in the brain and kidney as well as many other tissues.

Functions
• Sialic acid is an immune moderator that affects the flow resistance of mucus which, in turn, repels bacteria, viruses, and other harmful microbes. In several in vitro and animal studies, the saccharide has been shown to inhibit strains of influenza A and B viruses more effectively than any prescription antivirals. In the April 2001 issue of Protein Science, scientists from Australia reported findings that showed sialic acid was an effective antiflu agent. Another study reported in a 1995 issue of Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, stated that a sialic acid mixture was up to 1000 times more effective in fighting influenza than potent antiviral drugs. Such viruses can also cause cold sores, hepatitis, viral pneumonia, as well as the common cold. Therefore, this helpful information is nothing to sneeze at!!

• Since high levels are found in the human brain and kidney, it is speculated that sialic acid may play a key role in brain development and learning and in lessening the risk of kidney stone formation. Animal studies indicate that this essential saccharide does appear to improve both memory and cognitive performance.

• Sialic acid is also found in such other tissues as the skin and testes leading to speculation that disruptions like skin diseases and reproductive problems could be reversed with supplementation of this essential sugar.

• Sialic acid also influences blood coagulation and cholesterol levels, lowering LDL (bad cholesterol).

• In alcoholics as well as those with Sjögren’s syndrome, the levels of this saccharide are altered, suggesting that supplementation could reverse these disorders.

• Abnormalities in sialic acid metabolism are seen in infants who fail to grow, who regress in development, who have enlarged livers and/or spleens, who show a coarsening of facial features, and who display a failure to produce pigmentation of the skin and hair.

• Sialic acid, like the other essential sugars, appears to be important during pregnancy and lactation. The fact that levels are increased during these stages indicates the need for these sugars by the developing infant both for establishing immunity and for its physical and mental development.

• In severely ill patients, sialic acid levels are markedly decreased in the upper airway cells, which is an important barrier for preventing opportunistic respiratory infections seen in many of these patients.

• Sialic acid levels are markedly reduced in those with rheumatoid arthritis, confirming that this saccharide plays an important part in the immune system.

• Researchers at Kumamoto University in Japan discovered that sialic acid blocked the release of histamine, thus decreasing the severity of allergic reactions as well as asthmatic bronchial spasms.

N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc)
N-acetylgalactosamine is the least known of the eight essential sugars. As with the others, this one is also important for proper cell-to-cell communication. This communication is important for both normal systemic function and in such disease processes as cancer, inflammation, and immunity.

Functions
• As an essential sugar, the role is essentially the same for N-acetylgalactosamine as it is for the others, which is to enhance cellular communication. This stands to reason since a breakdown in human communications always results in misunderstandings which often escalate into large and small wars, so it is with cellular communication. When it breaks down, caos escalates into disease. Studies have confirmed that levels of N-acetylgalactosamine are altered in certain diseases, suggesting that it plays an important role in the prevention of those diseases.

• Although there has not been much research to date, what has been done reveals that this saccharide may inhibit the growth of some tumors. For example, colon cancer patients have only half the normal amounts of N-acetylgalactosamine. Studies have shown that colon cancer cells that metastasize make more mucin, making them more likely to form metastases. Therefore, it appears that N-acetylgalactosamine plays an important role in preventing this formation from occurring.

• Lower than normal levels of this sugar have been found in patients with heart disease implying that these conditions may be reversed if a supplementation of N-acetylgalactosamine were to be added to the diet.

• It appears that this sugar plays a role in joint function, sweeping away destructive free radicals that can cause inflammation.

• N-acetylgalactosamine also seems to play an important role in the immune system. Contained in macrophages and neutrophils, it may play a significant role in the etiolology of joint inflammation and could be important in such conditions as rheumatoid arthritis.

• N-acetylgalactosamine is localized in the golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum - found in cell organelles and associated with synthesis of various proteins and enzymes.

• Since it is also found on the surface of cortical neurons and involved in synaptic function of the brain, this suggests that it may be important in nerve function.

• N-acetylgalactosamine is also concentrated in other sensory nerve structures especially in the retina, photoreceptors, optic nerve, and the epithelial pigment of the eyes of both humans and animals. This suggests that it may be extremely important for optimal vision.

• N-acetylgalactosamine is distributed to several other tissues, suggesting that it is important in the functional role of these tissues. Some of these tissues include the ducts of the kidney, the testes, the skin, and a variety of other structures including sweat glands, some blood vessel cells, and hair follicles.

• It is known that concentrations of N-acetylgalactosamine decrease with age, implying that age-deterioration of various body functions could be held off with the addition of this saccharide to the diet.

N-acetylglucosamine
N-acetylglucosamine is another member of the group of eight essential sugars. It is best known by its derivative, Glucosamine, which is now a popular natural remedy for osteoarthritis. Apparently, it is the sulfur component of Glucosamine sulfate that is crucial to its mechanism of action. In fact, N-acetylglucosamine and Glucosamine sulfate are two entirely different molecules. The structural difference is this: N-acetylglucosamine has a portion of an acetic acid molecule attached to it, causing the body to handle the two compounds differently. Glucosamine sulfate absorption appears to be active, whereas no mechanism exists for the absorption of the N-form. It is advisable to use Glucosamine sulfate in conjunction with Chondroitin sulfate, since both enhance the absorption of the other.

Functions
• Glucosamine sulfate helps repair cartilage while decreasing pain and inflammation. It also seems to increase the range of motion in osteoarthritis. Injuries to the joints also heal more rapidly when this sugar is added to the diet. There is strong evidence to this supposition. Glucosamine is the substrate for the synthesis of glycosaminoglycan, the important building block of damaged cartilage. It appears that Glucosamine is able to prevent its metabolic breakdown. Rather, it is attracted to and directly involved in the repair of damaged cartilage. Based on these findings, scientists are now speculating that Glucosamine may also help generalized wound repair.

• Deficiencies or malfunctions in the ability to metabolize this sugar have been linked to diseases of the bowel and bladder. Glucosamine has been shown to help repair the
mucosal-lining defensive barrier called the glycosaminoglycan layer (GAG). Defects in the GAG layer have been implemented in Crohn’s disease, Ulcerative Colitis, and Interstitial Cystitis.

• Glucosamine is an immune modulator with antitumor and antiviral properties, as well as activity against HIV. Animal studies have shown that Glucosamine prevented the human influenza virus and the herpes virus.

• One of the most striking effects of Glucosamine is its ability to reduce the progression of experimental cancers. For instance, the growth of Ehrlich ascites tumors in mice were inhibited simply by adding the essential sugars Mannose and Glucosamine into their drinking water. The survival rate significantly increased while the tumors decreased. Other such tumors produced the same results. Reductions in blood levels of Glucosamine have been found in those with colon cancer. Distribution of the sugar is also altered when other cancerous tissues are present.

• As with some of the other essential sugars, scientists are finding that Glucosamine is also vital to learning. Researchers found that after two groups of mice received Glucosamine injections, the group that had been given 15-minutes worth of avoidance-conditioning training in which they were punished by electric shock for responding to some stimuli and rewarded with food for responding to others, incorporated nearly double the amount of Glucosamine into their brains as the mice that were not trained and were kept quietly in a cage.

• N-acetylglucosamine concentrations were also found in mammalian brains, suggesting a role in nerve function. This would also tie in with its role in the learning process.

• The thyroid gland is known to have N-acetylglucosamine receptors on its surface which are believed to play a role in the transport of thyroglobulin (an iodine-containing glycoprotein) within the gland itself.

• Since concentrated amounts are found in several tissues and organs, especially the liver, small intestine, testes, epithelial cells of the endocrine and sebaceous glands, and endothelial cells of blood vessels, it is readily assumed that Glucosamine plays an important role in these areas. Exactly what those roles are is still being researched.

• Retinal tissue from human eye donors showed that Glucosamine readily preferred the photoreceptor layer of the retina, suggesting that, not only this sugar is needed for vision, but the others as well since several essential sugar concentrations have been found in the eye structure.

• Significant amounts of Glucosamine have been found in the intestinal mucin, which binds cholesterol, thereby limiting its absorption.

• Glucosamine has proven to decrease insulin secretion without suppressing liver glucose production. This means that the “signaling” appears to be a normal regulatory role for the sugar in managing utilization.